NFTs as skeuomorphs: Weaponized sameness and fascist utopias

In a much-quoted viral Gawker article, writer Dan Brooks (2021) describes NFTs—short for nonfungible tokens and used primarily to denote digital pop-art that operates as cryptocurrency financial instruments—as combining “the nuanced social awareness of computer programmers with the soulful whimsy hedge fund managers. It is art people whose imaginations have been absolutely captured by new kind money you can do on computer.” He deplores aesthetic NFTs alongside their environmental economic destructiveness adherents perpetual adolescents, immature toxic, lacking in higher feeling, foresight, taste. Other commentators deconstructed ways NFT markets hurt artists (Dash 2021), operate some unholy combination pyramid scheme or multilevel marketing scam speculative bubble (Olson 2022), contribute crypto's staggeringly pernicious footprint (Tabuchi 2021). These critiques others continue be published garner widespread interest approval. And yet. Over course 2021 (perhaps lesser extent) 2022, visual artists, athletes, other celebrities created sold enormous sums Ethereum cryptocurrencies; boomed, attracting investors already wealthy, but also plenty ordinary crypto enthusiasts from outside sector; communities clubs aggregated around brightly colored, flashy collections like Bored Ape Yacht Club, CryptoPunks, open-source Nouns DAO (Figure 1). Through it all, meme-influenced did exactly what memes do: spread widely across internet through processes imitation iteration, form creative recombination common online art. Examples collection. (Creative Commons license CC0) [This figure appears color issue] Image description: An array four rows six images All take busts anthropomorphic figures three-quarter profile different heads, square glasses colors, neutral-colored backgrounds, highly patterned, colorful shirts. The colorful, cartoonish, pixelated. Each image depicts pixelated noun figure's head, these are hard distinguish interpret. At heart phenomenon tension between authenticity reproducibility. Although themselves—the stable URLs “receipts” blockchain—are eponymously nonfungible, JPEG incarnations eminently fungible. Right-clicking (copying, saving, reposting) an purchased (often at great expense) someone else public critique levied dispute originality given NFT. To me, this practice wildly misunderstands Imitation iteration seem fundamental ecosystem. Successful spawn myriad copycats. Numerous ape (with apologies pun) Club listed Crypto.com among most-traded collections. Mutant Rumble Kong League, CyberKongz all more less ape-related recognizably similar stylistic choices. Zoomed further out, marketplace itself clearly mimicking established markets, including replicating many same flaws, laundering bubbles collectors who financial-instruments-that-happen-to-be-called-art than lovers. Here, I want tease out relations iteration. Taking archaeologically influenced material culture studies perspective collecting broadly builds archaeology's long-standing efforts objects seriously (Aycock 2021; Jeffrey 2015; Morgan 2019, Rabinowitz 2015). propose if we understand why they valued (not mention, seems best not bother worst attract adherents), behooves us look mimetic layers locate them within longer genealogies engagement production culture. My contention evident lack uniqueness endlessly iterative fungibility are, fact, key inspiring buy-in—both literal figurative. entry point into domain inquiry skeuomorphism, defined here meaningful one object typically made another (Frieman 2012b). skeuomorphism recently entered lexicon describe design choices approximate physical use patterned user interfaces (UIs) (e.g., app bookshelf pseudo wood grain patterns leather-styled features set wooden shelves) Page 2014), concept has long history archaeology. was coined descriptive category technical lagged behind technological changes—an vestigial, stone copies architectural forms painted early ceramics imitating basketry (Colley March 1889). Certainly, sense superfluity underlies much skeuomorphic UIs (Pogue 2013). Archaeological readings frequently linked evolutionary models change highlight instabilities technologies emerged old aesthetics adhered (Blitz Taylor 2007). extracted linear functionalist frameworks explored property its own right, distinct histories. Thus, interrogated lens agency (Knappett 2002), value creation 2012a), subversive (Harrison 2003), identity formation affiliation 2010, 2012b, goal shift our understanding (and imitative broadly) away realm passive positivist progress narratives context where gestures sequences produce could impact perception those materials. That just powerful novel observation. Taussig (1993), following Benjamin ([1936] 1969, [1933] 1979, 1999), situates power acts things liminal space copy original invokes meaning draws. Copies employ reshape world them, reformulating relationships body reality, individuals, things. Indeed, even space, researchers now revealing genuine impacts people's behavior (Meng Leary 2022; Pelet Taieb 2017; Urbano, Guerreiro, Nicolau 2022). Skeuomorphs don't certain way; shape how engage technology it. my work innovation 2021, 72–78), returned order unpick contemporary pejorative association creativity. argue emulation intrinsically creative, requires constant reinterpretation. Moreover, qualities objects—viewed sort textile interwoven materials, gestures, schools thought, learned practices, histories making, relationships—create rich milieu communicating complex ideas about affiliation, values, relates specific practices technologies. context, most visible vibrant makers iterate create remixing “knowledge collaboration” (Stanko 2016). object—a pattern 3D model, example—an artist demonstrates creativity expertise way enhances connectivity members community (Flath et al. 2017). emerges emulation. meme famously originates Dawkins (1976), saw parallel gene: unit information passed mind mind, evolving selective pressure spread. More recently, term come encompass wide variety practices—from dances text strings joke formats—that transformed shared platforms Reddit, Twitter, Facebook. Just because something viral, however, does make (Miltner Shifman 2013, Memes participatory transformative element: although share format, core text, idea, product recombination. Milner (2015) argues process “memetic participation . characterized creation, circulation, transformation collective texts” makes meme. This practice, texts, novelty lies Following Owens (2019, 103), audiences consume disseminate template format genre renders “familiar recognizable” and, hence, relatable. words, emotional media helps reinforce people, facilitating conversations bridging personal cultural differences, due large part quality—the expected, familiar comfortable grammar (text, image, action, etc.) while allowing personalization reinterpretation quality sameness enhanced variations presentation, overwritten them. Artist Pierre Chaumont (2019) terms emergence emotive “memesis,” which he defines creating spreading culture.” origins forums 4chan /b/, operated in-jokes, vocabulary, memetic texts both enhance connections boundaries outsiders “normies” (Nagle membership dissemination strengthens expands community. art, cartoonish characters, sometimes animated rudimentary games videos reproduced pictures (PFPs) foster memesis intensely invested (again, figuratively literally) connecting Twitter Discord servers. Insiders enforced conscious promotion “clubs” deployment obfuscating terminology. While mock buyers right-clicking, principles exigencies attention economy, influence (Shifman 32–33). subculture signals admiration replication (even when motivated mockery) provides “free labour” (sensu Goerzen 2017) crucial enhancing prestige purchaser. Frye (2022), comes reproduction original, anyone experience free. only thing that's really scarce clout ownership.” anthropological terms, might understood species inalienable possession continuously exchanged retaining lineage mythology (Weiner 1985), transactions documented eternity blockchain permanent record books. However, instead knife-edge keeping-while-giving, see acquire status keeping-AND-giving. uniquely reproducible properties objects, norms community, mean able encouraged keep ownership time give access licit concomitantly concentrating wealth individual reciprocity. Skeuomorphism, then, important interpretative tool analyze directly increasing potent memesis. bills paradigm-shifting, fact clear historical genealogy. twentieth century, Italian futurists promoted disruptive championed mechanization, machinery, novelty, youth, belligerent masculinity, well repudiating earlier generations. shock traditionalists, intentionally grotesque discordant, manifestos, enthused destruction, violence, pollution symbol thrusting mechanization (Poggi 2009). Proponents crypto-sphere echo language, attitude, sentiment outsiders. Of significance futurist were are) fascism (Benjamin [1936] 1969; Eco 1995); indeed, Marinetti authored manifesto (Marinetti 1909) subsequent fascist (De Ambris 1919). appeal rely recalls art's imperative unity, conformity, standardization (Huener Nicosia 2006; Machin Richardson 2012). Koepnick (1999), drawing Benjamin's 1969) model fascism, promoting consumption standardized industrial products popular necessary complement uniforms, chants, drumbeats Nazi spectacles. Together communality papering over politics inhibited interpersonal solidarity. sees orgy capitalist conformity thwarted utopia “a phantasmagoria community” (Koepnick 1999. 53) citizen-consumers state. offers cautionary tale very real dangers growing vigorous grossly destructive trellis then reinforcing sculpting whole crypto-sphere, facilitation financialization everyday life relations, described utopia. Likewise, enthusiasts, observe growth elaboration particularly aggressive, masculine utopian capitalism (cf. Mendoza-Denton imitation, replication, labor goods expansion strengthening enthusiast Communities consumers affiliate themselves consumption, micro-identities distinction undifferentiated ecosystem, tribes purchasers chasing elite. insignia flag, embodied (Morgan 2019; 2002): but, PFP, becomes owner's face, avatar calling card boundaries. Skeuomorphs, argued elsewhere, ideal boundary Star Griesemer 1989), tools identities systems divergent draw diversity technological, semantic, 2012a, Opining ease copying rather misses owners and—in tradition—the Gucci sunglasses cartoon ape. Instead condescending laughter misguided should perhaps carefully consider politics, being mobilized via idealistic keep-and-give. article written researched unceded Ngunnawal Ngambri Country, pay respects Elders, past present, beautiful place. benefitted critical support feedback Caroline Schuster whilst drafting this. Open publishing facilitated Australian National University, Wiley - University agreement Council Librarians.